Different Methods of Chromatography Analysis

Different Methods of Chromatography Analysis General Introduction Health is of prime importance to a human beings and wants to get cured in the least possible time whenever they falls ill. This desire and necessity has resulted in the use of a large number of synthetic organic compounds as medicines despite the fact that usually side effects are associated with the use of these drugs. In recent times, practice of giving a number of drugs together has very much increased. Due to drug interaction, the levels of the active drugs together has very much increased. Due to drugs interaction, the levels of the active drug may be too high for a longer time to cause side effects. Further, the reduction/ oxidation products of these medicines, which are produced during the metabolism may also be responsible for their side effects. It is therefore necessary to develop sensitive trace analytical methods for the analysis of the drugs by using UV Spectrophotometer, most sophisticated and advanced chromatographic techniques like UPLC, GC, HPLC etc. Use of pharmaceutical preparations to make their determination, a matter of for most importance. Due to the great variability of the materials, which are to be analyzed; skillful sampling, preliminary clean-up procedure and selection of a appropriate method in the assay is necessary. With the introduction of new and more potent drugs every year, the pharmaceutical analyst is called upon to devise new analytical methods like chromatographic techniques; with ever increasing sensitivity, specificity and simplicity for new drugs . HISTORY OF CHROMATOGRAPHY1 The study of chromatography happening in eighteenth century when with a immense significance the nature of inorganic compounds was considered on filter paper by Runge. In 1898 Day in USA forced crude petroleum throughout a column of limestone and fuller’s earth. The chromatographic theory was discovered first by a Russian botanist , MichaelTswett (1906) who make use of a glass column of calcium carbonate for separation of chlorophyll pigments from plant by using petroleum ether. The major development occurred around 1930 when Lederer and co-workers in 1931 separated xanthine and lutein on a column of calcium carbonate powder. In 1935 ,Adams and Holmes observed some synthetic ion exchange resins capable of exchanging ions  and thus ion exchange chromatography came in to existence. In 1944, Martin, Consden ,Gorden replaced silica gel columns by strips of filter paper and developed Paper chromatography. Thin layer chromatography though discovered first by Lzmailer and Shraiber , was further developed By Stahl and co-workers using silica gel on glass plates. Amongest the newest and most effective chromatographic technique for analyzing complex mixtures is Gas chromatography. It was introduced by Martin and James in 1952. INTRODUCTION OF CHROMATOGRAPHY1 A variety of methods are available for the separation of components from the mixture. They are mainly divided in to two types. Chemical methods Physical methods. The physical methods include fractional distillation, extraction, counter-current distribution; crystallization etc.These methods are effective in separation, purication and identification of many compounds .how ever difficulty arises in case of compounds where individual components have similar physical and chemical properties i.e mixture of liquids having very close boiling points etc. Chromatographic methods corresponds to the most handy and potent technique for these problems. These chromatographic methods are used for the partition of components of a composite mixture. Because of the quickness and efficiency of this methods, it can be used in all fields particulalarly in chemistry, biology, medicine, dyes, forensic departments and clinical studies. The term Chromatography derived from Greek words Kromatos means colour and Graphos –means written. Tswett defined chromatography as the technique in which the components of a combination are separated on an adsorbent column in a flowing system. As per IUPAC Chromatography is defined as a method used mainly for the division of the components of a sample ,in which the components are disseminated between two phases, one of which is stationary whereas the other moves. The stationary phase might be a solid or a liquid support on a solid or a gel, and might be packed in a column ,spread as a layer or disseminated as a film. The mobile phase possibly will be gaseous or liquid. First and foremost for the partition of the components of a sample , in which the components are disseminated . TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY: Chromatographic methods can be classified on the basis of stationary and mobile phases used, depending on the stationary and the mobile phase used, separation occurs because of a combination of two or more factors such as extent of adsorption, rate of migration and capillary action etc†¦ Different types of chromatographic techniques as follows a. Adsorption chromatography b. Partition chromatography c. Paper chromatography d. Thin layer chromatography e. Gas-liquid chromatography f. Gas-solid chromatography g. Ion exchange chromatography A Adsorption Chromatography: The principle underlying the separation of the compounds is adsorption at the solid –liquid interface, for successful separation , the compounds of a mixture must show different degrees of affinity for the solid support and the interaction between adsorbent and component must be reversible, as the adsorbent is washed with fresh solvent the various components will therefore move down the column until, ultimately, they are arranged in order of their affinity for the adsorbent ,those with least affinity move Paper chromatography: Paper partition chromatography was developed by consden et al, In this paper partition chromatography paper is used as the support or adsorbent but partition probably plays a greater part than adsorption in the separation of components of the mixtures In this chromatography substances are distributed between two liquids ie one is the stationary liquid (generally water )which is detained in the fibers of the paper and is called as stationary phase, the other is the touching liquid or rising solvent and is called moving phase, The components of the mixture to be separated at different rates and appear as spots at different points on the paper The moment of components on the paper depends on the amount and nature of the stationary phase compared with the amount of mobile phase in the same part of the paper and also on the partition coefficient The rate of movement of mobile phase at the solvent front tends to be faster than at the position of the component on the paper ,it is better to defined as Rf RF= DISTANCE traveled by centre of component /Distance travelled by solvent front Types of paper chromatography 1 Descending chromatography Is defined as while the development of the paper is made by permiting the solvent to travel down the paper Advantage: 1. The development can be continued indefinitely even though the solvents run off at the other end of the paper 2. Ascending chromatography once the improvement of the paper is done by permitted the solvent to move up the paper it is recognized as ascending technique 3. Ascending – Descending chromatography In this procedure the upper fraction of the ascending chromatography can be folded over a glass rod permit the ascending expansion to change over into the descending after crossing the glass rod 4. Radial Paper chromatography This is also known as circular paper chromatography, this constructs utilize of radial development 5. Two dimensional chromatography In this a square or rectangular paper is utilized the sample is applied to one of the spot of the paper. The second development is performed at right angle to the direction of the first run This type of chromatography can be conceded out with identical solvent systems in the both the directions or by two solvent systems Importance of paper chromatography It is used for analyzing the polar compounds like amino acids, sugars and natural products, It also has been applied for the separation of many organic and biochemical products Thin layer chromatography: Thin layer chromatography is similar to paper chromatography except that a thin (025 mm) layer of some inert material such as AI2O3, MgO or Si o2 is used as the substrate instead of paper The process of thin layer chromatography was first established by izmailor and shraiber in 1938 Thin layer chromatography offers a faster and more efficient separation than paper chromatography and majority of paper chromatographic separations have now been superseded by thin layer chromatography procedures Thin layer chromatography has many advantages when compared to the other techniques like paper and column chromatography They are It requires very little time for separation Spraying with corrosive agents for credentials is also tolerable which is not achievable in paper chromatography as cellulose gets destroyed The method is used for partition , adsorption ,ion exchange chromatography as there is huge range of adsorbents obtainable This technique can be apply to preparative separation with the aid of thicker layer of adsorbents Thin layer chromatography has been included under both adsorption and partition chromatography ,in this the separation is carried on a glass or plastic plate which is coated with a thin uniform layer of finely divided inert adsorbent such as silica gel or alumina The plates are activated, the solution of the sample in a volatile solvent is applied by using a capillary tube or a micropipette to a spot keeping 1-2 cm from the bottom of TLC Plate ,the position of the sample spot is indicated by making a origin line on the plate with the lead pencil When the blemish has dried, the plate is positioned vertically in a suitable tank with it’s lower edge immersed in selected mobile phase The solvent rises by capillary action, resolving the sample mixture into separate spots at the end of the run the solvent is tolerable to vanish from the plate and the separated spots are situated and recognized by various physical and chemical methods Preparation of chromate plates With the help of pouring, dipping, spraying and spreading methods the chromatoplates are prepared, with help of qualitative and quantitative methods the TLC plate evaluated Ion exchange chromatography Separation of ionic substances may be carried out in glass columns similar to those described for adsorption and partition chromatography the chromatography medium – stationary phase is an ion exchange resin which is a polymer containing fixed charged groups and replaceable counter ions of the opposite charge, when a sample containing organic or inorganic ions is passed down the column the ions of the same charge as the counter ions displace the counter ions into the mobile phase and are retained on the column cationic and anionic exchange resins have positively and negatively charged counter ions respectively ,and retard the migration of the sample cations and anions respectively , Ion exchange chromatography: Separation of Ionic substances may be carried out in glass columns similar to those describes. Ion exchange resins: Modern resins are based on cross linked polystyrene prepared in bead form by the copolymerization of styrene divinyl benzene (DVB) Most commonly useful resins are prepared with approximately 8% DVB. Strong action exchange resins are prepared by sulphonating the free benzene rings. Strong anion exchange resins includes quaternary ammonium residues are prepared by chloromethylation of the free benzene rings followed by treatment with a tertiary amine salt ex: Trimethylamine amino hydrochloride. The strength and exchange capacities of ion exchange resins depend on the acidic or basic strength of the fine charged group. Thus the strongly acidic suphonic acid and strongly basic quaternary ammoinium groups give strong ion exchange resins with a high exchange capacity. Weaker exchange resins containing the weakly acidic carboxylic acid (COOH) or weakly basic derivatives of ammonia (ex: NHR2+Cl) generally have a lower exchange capacity. Applications: Used for the separation of similar ions Used for softening the hard water Purification of organic compounds Anion exchange chromatography include the assay of total halogenic salts using a resin in the OH form. Anion exchange is also used to separate heamine, and neomycin C from neomycin B t o test for neomycin C in Framycetin sulphate and neomycin sulphate. Gas Chromatography: The division of the components of a combination in the gaseous state could be achieved by partition column chromatography using a gaseous mobile phase was first made by martin and synge in 1941. In gas liquid chromatography: The immobile phase is a thin layer of a non-volatile liquid bound to a solid support and the mobile phase is a gas . A partition process occurs In gas-solid chromatography: Utilizes a solid adsorbent as the stationary phase and an adsorption process takes place Technique of gas chromatography: In this technique the sample is introduces in to the moving carrier gas stream and is carried by it through the column. The column contains either the active solid or a liquid of low vapour pressure held upon an inert solid. The active solid or non volatile liquid act as stationary phase whereas the carrier gas acts as mobile phase. The components of mixture sample distribute between two phases. The solubility or adsorption possessions might vary from component to component and therefore the components are carried along the column at different varies and finally emerge at the outlet of the column in distinct zones separates by the carrier gas. On rising the vapours of the constituent are detected by suitable detector accompanied by an automatic recording. Gas chromatographic appearances consists of Carrier Gas: Ex: Hydrogen, Helium Flow regulators and flow meters Ex: Rota-meter, soap bubble meter Injection devices: Columns Depending on its use:- Analytical Column Preparative Column Depending on its nature Packed column (Placed column are described as analytical column) Open tubular column Support coated open tubular column Temperature control devices Detectors ex: Katharometer Flame ionization factor Argon ionization factor Electron capture factor Recording and integrators Applications of GC: For qualitative analysis Quantitative analysis It is used for finishing of impurities present in the samples It is used for the separation and identification of lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, flavours, preservatives, colorants in food as well as vitamins steroids It is used for converting the non-volatile compounds in to volatile compounds by derivatization method. It is used for the determination of solvent residues or solvent if crystallization HPLC: The course of action of high performance liquid chromatography was developed in the late 1960s. The attitude of high performance liquid chromatography is so called because of its improved performance when compared to classified column chromatography. It is also described as high pressure liquid chromatography. Advantages of HPLC: There is ease of sample introduction and sample preparation There is speed of analysis Te analysis by HPLC is specific accurate and precise. It is used for the analysis of many polar, ionic substances, metabolic products and thermo-labile as well as non-volatile substances. Principles of HPLC: The technique is based on the same modes of separation as classified column chromatography i.e. partition, ion-exchange, adsorption and gel permeation, but it vary from column chromatography in that the mobile phase is pumped through the packed column under high pressure. Apparatus: the mode of operation of this system is isocratic i.e. one partition solvent or mixture is pumped throughout the analysis. For some determinations the solvent composition may be altered gradually to give gradient elution. Pumps: pumps are mandatory to distribute a stable flow of mobile phase at pressures varying from 1 to 550 bar. They are two types of pumps: Mechanical pumps: if the reciprocating piston type give a pulsating supply of mobile phase Dual piston reciprocating pump produce the two pistons are carefully phased so that simultaneously is filling the other is pumping. Injection systems: Injection ports are of two fundamental types Those in which the sample is injected directly in to the column Those in which the sample is deposed prior to the column bay and then swept by a valving action in to the column by mobile phase.

Difference in Us Gaap and International Accounting

IS IFRS a better Accounting Standard than US GAAP for achieving good financial reports? This research paper delivers an analysis of determining whether the International Financial Reporting Standards, hereafter known as IFRS, is a better reporting standard than the US Generally Accepted Accounting Principle (GAAP). Financial Statements have to provide high quality financial reporting information with regards to economic entities, primarily financial in nature, which are useful for economic decision making (FASB, 1999; IASB, 2008).International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) have been extremely involved in making IFRS the international Accounting Standard. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) has been working on evaluating the implications of incorporating IFRS into the US financial reporting system, currently known as US GAAP. More than one hundred countries have moved to IFRS reporting, or have decided to require the use of these standards in the near future. (SEC,[2007]).Financial reports are a combination of four different key statements. They are balance sheets, income statements, cash flow statements and the statements of shareholders equity. Currently, the FASB is the highest authority in establishing generally accepted accounting for public and private companies in the United States. Financial reports are a necessary tool used by current and prospective investors to see how a company function and stands financially. It is also used to analyze and assess a company’s potential areas of growth as well as its areas of weakness.US GAAP has many guidelines and rules to follow whereas IFRS is more based on basic principle. Comparing the US Generally Accepted Accounting Principle (GAAP) and IFRS might help to understand which standards will better serve the Goal of achieving good financial reports. Both IFRS and US GAAP have many rules in common and are significantly similar due to the conjunction efforts of both officials over the years. Despite this, numerous differences between US GAAP and IFRS also exist. The big four audit firms have been instrumental in developing a difference between the standards.The followings are the comparisons of rules between IFRS and US GAAP to remotely see the difference between two accounting standards in three different areas. The areas are A) Revenue Recognition, B) Business Combination and C) Inventories. A) Revenue Recognition: US GAAP revenue recognition guidance is extensive and includes a significant number of standards issued by the Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB) and the US Securities and Exchange Commission. The guidance tends to be highly detailed and is often industry-specific.One of the most common general revenue recognition issues has to do with the determination of when transaction with multiple deliverables should be separated into components and how the revenue gets allocated to the different components. Under US GAAP, detailed separation and allocation criteria is focused whereas IFRS focus on the economic substance of the transactions (Ernst & Young, 2011). Revenues are likely to increase with less detailed guidance under IFRS. B) Inventory Valuation: The US GAAP permits last in first out (LIFO), first in first out (FIFO), and weighted average cost.The inventories carried are recorded at the lower of the cost or market price. According to IFRS, first in first out and weighted average cost are only permitted. Companies that use last in first out must revalue inventory, which could result in tax liabilities due to the IRS’s last in first out conformity rule. C) Business combination: Business combination refers to the takeover of one enterprise by another. Business combinations are one of the important business activities carried out in current capital market (Bohusova, 2009). More than 13000 M&A transactions were carried out worldwide in 2006 (IASB, 2006).Although US GAAP has largely converged with IFRS in this area, certain important differences have remained. The business combination standards under US GAAP and IFRS have two major differences: (1) Full goodwill and (2) the requirements regarding recognition of contingent assets and contingent liabilities. Different requirements for impairment testing and accounting for deferred taxes are among the most significant. The Business combination project has contributed to Mergers and Acquisition recording harmonization and to comparability of financial statement in the area of business combination (Svoboda, 2009).Importance of Good Financial Reporting: Financial reporting and disclosure quality are very important because it is linked with various economic consequences such as market liquidity, firms’ cost of capital, and corporate decision making (Daske, 2006). It is relatively impossible to compute all of the economic consequences that may have cause due to corporate decision. Additionally, all the effects a re not properly understood nor will there be supportive evidence. Investors depend upon the financial reports provided by the companies for investment opportunities.Financial reports provided by the companies are the only evidence of the effectiveness of reporting quality. Less informed investors are worried about the better informed investors. This causes less informed investors to lower the price of the security to protect against the losses from trading with better informed financiers. The unwillingness of the less informed investors reduces the liquidity of the securities market. Corporate disclosure can alleviate the problem and increase market liquidity by leveling information among investors (Verracchia, 2001).Good reporting and disclosure can affect the cost of capital. Better disclosure can improve risk sharing in the economy, either by making investors aware of certain securities or by making them more willing to hold them, which again reduces the cost of capital (Diamond and Verrecchia, 1991). It is also very likely that better reporting improves corporate decision making. For instance the efficiency of firm’s investment decision would improve. There have been a number of studies conducted suggesting that better reporting leads to higher investment efficiency.However, the evidence on the effects of reporting quality on corporate decisions is still in its early stages (Biddle et al, 2008). The disclosure of one firm can be very useful to other firms for decision-making purpose but it can also help reduce agency problems in other firms. The disclosure of operating performance and governance engagements provides useful standards that help outside investors to evaluate other firm’s managerial efficiency or potential agency conflicts and doing so lowers the cost of monitoring. Another very important element of corporate reporting is its comparability among firms.Corporate reporting can be precisely useful to the investors and other stakehol ders if they are using similar accounting standards. More comparable reporting makes it easier to differentiate between less and more profitable firms, which in turn reduces information asymmetries among investors and provides lower risk to the investors. These improvement resulting from greater comparability can also increase market liquidity and reduce firms cost of capital (Daske, 2006). Better comparability can also have positive effects on corporate decision making.More comparable reports allow firms to make better informed investment choices due to a better understanding of competing firms, both within a country and across countries. Growing numbers of firms with comparable financial reports increases the number of two ways communication linkages in the â€Å"Financial reporting† network. This enhances the value of the overall network to both the investors and firms (Meeks and Swann, 2008). Although there are many benefits of more comparable reporting and disclosure, th ere are also costs to improving corporate reporting.The reporting and disclosure costs include the preparation and certification. Regulators should carefully weigh the convergence of costs and benefits to firms, investors, and other parties in the economy. The benefit of high quality and more comparable reporting may also vary significantly across industries and markets. Impact of IFRS in Foreign Countries: Financial reporting quality is affected by many factors other than just the accounting principle adopted. These include legal and political systems, reporting incentives and other market incentives. Ball, Robin, & Wu, 2003). The quality of financial reporting also depends on the relevance and reliability of the financial and non-financial information recognized and disclosed (Ferrari, Momente, and Reggiani, 2011). Empirical research conducted by Ferrari, Momente and Reggiani studied the earning quality in relation between the German companies practicing IFRS and German companies practicing German accounting standards (HGB). This research has been conducted based on German companies, excluding financials and utilities listed on the Frankfurt stock exchange.German is the only large country in Europe with a strong set of local GAAP where a substantial quantity of firms applied IFRS on a voluntary basis before 2005. Out of 746 German companies 368 were following IRFS and 378 companies were following HGB (SEE APPENDEX 1). The mathematical finding articulates that the analyses supports the idea that the IFRS adopter are generally characterized by a level of earnings management lower than or equal to the HGB adopters. Another study conducted by Daske, Hall, Leuz and Verdi looked for evidence on economic consequences after mandatory IFRS Reporting.The analyses were based on market liquidity and cost of capital in 26 different countries. Their research provides us with the synopsis on the capital market effects after introducing the IFRS in 26 countries around the w orld. The study analyzes the effects in stock market liquidity, cost of equity capital, and equity valuations. The results propose that the mandatory adopters experience statistically significant increases in market liquidity after IFRS reporting becomes compulsory. These research and results indicate that results have mixed results on quality changes after the adaption of IFRS in different countries.Whether IFRS can work properly in markets that are disciplined mainly by regulators rather than the market mechanism can be verified by observing the adoption of IFRS by China (DING & SU, 2008). What’s more, a single set of standards may not be suitable for all settings and thus may not improve reliability due to differences among countries (Soderstrom & Sun, 2007). The adoption of IFRS in the Chinese economy has significantly improved the quality of accounting and reported earnings (Liu el at, 2001).Evidence also reveals that value significance of reported earnings increased whi le earning leveling decreased with the standard change. Empirical evidence showed by Daske et al. ’s (2008) claim that quality improvement from IFRS adoption is expected to be higher for adopters with poorer quality as firms audited by the Big Four before the standard change. This clearly shows that IFRS has been the preferable accounting standards for foreign countries. Is Conversion to IFRS economically advantage? Quality reporting and more comparable reporting and disclosure can create economy-wide benefits.Therefore it is safe to say that it makes economic sense for regulators to access the current reporting environment within a market or country to determine if any changes to the reporting environment could move reporting quality and comparability closer to the peak. My question is, what role the accounting standards play in achieving good quality and comparable reporting practices? How will policymaker achieve these goals? The capital markets and investors appreciate hi gher transparency and high quality reporting.However, the evidence from academic studies suggests a limited role of standards in influencing reporting practices (Daske, 2006). To further support this point, we need to highlight the role of reporting incentives and institutional frameworks in shaping firms’ reporting practices. We can also assume that changing the accounting standards can also lead to undesirable effects depending upon the economy. Studies steered by Ball and Shivakumar (2005) illustrated the importance of firms reporting incentives, rather than accounting standards, as key drivers of observed reporting quality.The studies identify that accounting standards give firms considerable reporting choice because the application of the standards involves considerable judgment since accounting measurements rely on management’s private information and involve an assessment of the future, making them subjective demonstration of management’s evidence set. Fi rms reporting inducements are molded by many factors which includes the capital market forces, the law of the nation and a firm’s compensation on performance to the management.It is relevant for the IFRS debater that the studies show that even the firms with the same accounting standards, reporting practices fluctuate considerably across firms and countries (Ball and Shivakumar, 2005). Studies also shows that even if these standards are strictly enforced and implemented, moving to a single set of accounting standards is not enough to produce comparability of reporting and disclosure practices (Ball and Shivakumar, 2005). This proves that accounting standards are more limited than often thought.They are just one of many factors which help shape actual reporting and disclosure practices. Accounting standards are a very important organized element that affects financial reporting practices in a country. In a good economy, these elements are most likely to help one another becaus e accounting information plays an important role in financial contracting (Ball, 2001). Investors in public equity markets use financial statements to witness their entitlements, make speculations, or use their rights at shareholder meetings.Therefore, it is practical to think that corporate reporting improvements in conjunction with other institutional factors to enable financial transaction and contracting (Ball, 2001). IFRS is favored because of the idea behind its effects on capital market and investors. Another thing to consider is that the adoption of IFRS can also improve financial reporting to outside investors. We can conclude that IFRS leans more toward capital markets which is more relevant to investors. Tightening the accounting standard can reduce the level of earning management and improve reporting quality (Soderstrom, 2007).Hence, IFRS helps to lower the quantity of reporting discretion comparative to many local GAAP. However reducing the level of reporting discretio n can also makes it more difficult for management to track their private information through the financial statements. Using a similar accounting standard across the world likely improves foreigner’s ability to notice earnings management and accounting manipulations. Hence, a shift to IFRS does in fact increase the comparability of a firm’s report, and it can also improve market liquidity. In contrary, Daske et al. 2008) verifies that the capital market effects around the mandatory IFRS reporting are not evenly distributed across countries because countries with weak law enforcement and reporting incentives are most susceptible to remain substantially unaffected by the IFRS mandate. There is evidence of constructive capital market outcome by the IFRS mandate in several countries. However, there is significant variance in the effects across firms and countries. IFRS adoptions in the US economy rests on whether the quality of US firms reporting fluctuate in the capital m arket.Therefore, it is necessary to acknowledge such changes in reporting quality are likely to occur. IFRS is now similarly compared with US GAAP and the remaining differences are minor (Krishnan el at 2012). Both standards have a similar fundamental viewpoint and capital market positioning. In 2002, the two standard setting bodies issued a Memorandum of Understanding (â€Å"Norwalk Agreement†), agreeing to make the two financial reporting standards more compatible and to coordinate their future work program in order to maintain compatibility (FASB (1999).IFRS and US GAAP have converged in many areas bringing both standards closer to each other. The US is one of the largest economies in the world. The institutional framework of the US economy is very unique. US firms typically rely heavily on publicly traded external finance (Juang el at, 2012). Directly or indirectly, a larger portion of US household hold debt and equity securities through mutual funds compare to other coun tries. Retirement savings represents a substantial amount of those securities. Hence, the regulators have a great responsibility to support this financial system.Therefore, the current securities laws and the US GAAP primarily are geared towards supporting public debt and equity markets. The US economy and its capital market are diverse. Reporting outcomes under US GAAP are generally considered to be high quality because of its ability to reflect economic events in a timely manner (Ball et al, 2001). The public enforcement system is supplemented by robust private administration, intimidating lawsuit, and potentially substantial financial consequences for managers, directors, and corporations that engage in reporting crimes.FASB standards and additional SEC filing rules requires a more substantial amount of disclosure than in any other countries (SEC). Hence, a switch to IFRS can bring a dilemma weather to maintain disclosure requirements mandated by the SEC or stick to IFRS limited disclosure (SEC). Cost Analysis of Adopting IFRS-From the preceding discussion, the capital market benefits of IFRS and the effects on U. S reporting practices are likely to be small. However, let’s take a look at the cost consequences of adopting IFRS.In the first year of publishing IFRS reports, companies will have to train their employees in the preparation of IFRS financial statements. Hiring outside specialists and consultants and upgrading the software are other major expenses companies will have to bear. It should be noted that there will be additional revenue for the firms who does the advisory and auditing of those firms. Not surprisingly, many of the accounting firms take very optimistic attitude regarding the potential adoption of IFRS by the US. The cost for US firms would be substantial.According to ICAEW, 2007 per firm estimates ranging from 0. 31% of total sales for firms with sales below $700 million to . 05% of total sales for larger firms. This amounts to an average onetime cost of $430,000 for small firms and $3. 24 million for large firms. Based on these estimates, the US economy as a whole could cost up to $8 billion. The cost might go up if SEC requires firms to provide reports under both standards. Although the one-time conversion costs are likely to be substantial, there is no guarantee for any recurring cost.There might be periodic costs associated with inconsistencies within the US legal and institutional system (ICAEW, 2007). To my understanding issues like this wouldn’t be easily to fixed. One can argue that there are also many reasons to believe that adoption of IFRS could also save money because of a single global reporting system in the long run. The foreign US holdings multinationals often have to fulfill with the domestic reporting standards of their residence which is most likely to be IFRS. If foreign multinationals that use IFRS no longer have to maintain US GAAP reporting then they will save money on the conve rsion.The adoption of IFRS could save money to many US firms indirectly. Effect on Education System due to conversion: The accounting professionals and educators need to be brought up to speed in an adequately time frame in order for smooth conversion to IFRS. As mentioned earlier, China and Germany were able to convert the standard smoothly; the same should be possible in the U. S. The big four accounting firms have been releasing a number of reports that IFRS education is lagging behind. The big four accounting firm have reported that U.S. investors and issuers are not yet appropriately educated with IFRS, and that at present college curriculums, text books and other instructional tools do not adequately train students and other interested parties in IFRS proficiencies (Ernst & Young, 2007b; KPMG, 2008b). Writers Point of View: This research paper has mentioned a few times about the issues related to the compatibility of IFRS with the US institutional framework. The countryâ€℠¢s financial reporting system is a very important determinant of aggregate economic effects.Hence, the financial reporting system is one of the basics of country’s organized framework which is likely to detect the performance of a country’s financial and economic system. A switch to IFRS by US regulators can cause unwanted concerns for the US economy if there are any incompatibilities with other elements of the organizational framework, even when IFRS are thought to be high quality and perform well in other countries. Financial markets are a network where one is reliant upon others’ financial reports. It is difficult to ascertain and quantify the complexity that can caused due to the adoption of IFRS.As countries institutional frameworks play a key role in determining manager’s reporting inducements and the use of discretion, it is significant to know whether the amount of reporting preference in IFRS creates a problem for the US litigation system since i t is moderately exclusive. Because IFRS has less specific standards and guidance, executives have to apply more judgment in interpreting IFRS. IFRS could lead to uncertainty about litigation outcomes which could even induce executives to make conservative accounting decisions.A vital issue is whether a single set of accounting standards is necessary and would benefit firms, investors, and additional stakeholders. Striving for a single set of accounting standards can generate some cost savings and comparability supports, but the adoption of IFRS in the US would also eliminate the existing competition between IFRS and US GAAP. This could also mean the monopoly of IFRS. Monopoly has never been a good sign in the business world for a consumer. As I have mentioned earlier in my paper, US GAAP and IFRS have very small differences.Hence, it makes perfect logic that comparability of US GAAP is likely to increase globally because additional countries plan on adopting IFRS. US investors will be in better position if they are capable of understanding the IFRS due to growing adoption around the globe. Alternatively, FASB could keep up with the work on adapting the favorable principles of IFRS into the US GAAP yet not converting completely into IFRS. U. S investors and executives will have sufficient time to adapt with the change if U. S GAAP is slowly modified to converge with IFRS.This could possibly be the most inexpensive and least disruptive option for the US economy. CONCLUSION: A vital role of accounting standards is to cut back the transactions cost of communicating data among various shareholders, permitting them to make more effective judgments and to undertake transactions within, outside, and among firms. There are pros and cons for adopting IFRS. Comparability could be seen as pros whereas higher initial cost for convergence and monopoly of IFRS could be seen as cons. Since US economy is very complex, the effect of IFRS could not be forecasted in its eternity. It is better for US regulator to slowly convert the favorable principle of IFRS into US GAAP. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ball, R. , A Robin, and Wu, 2003, Incentives Versus Standards: Properties of Accounting Income in four East Asian Countries, Journal of Accounting and Economics36, 235-270. Ball, R. , 2001, Infrastructure Requirements of an Economically Efficient System of Public Fianncial Reporting and Disclosure, in Brooking- Wharton papers on Financial Services, R. Litan, And T. Herring (eds), Brooking Insitution Press, Washington, 127-169. Ball, R. , Shivakumar, 2005, Earning quality in U.K Private Firms, Journal of Accounting and Economics 39, 83-128 Biddle, G, G Hilary and R. Verdi, 2008, How does Financial Reporing Quality Improve Investment Efficiency.? Working paper, University of Hong Kong, Hong kong university of science & technology and MIT Sloan School of Management. Bohusova, Hana, and Patrick Svoboda. â€Å"IFRS AND US GAAP CONVERGENCE IN AREA OF MERGER AND ACQUISITION. † Economics & Management 14. 1822-6515 (2009): 20-27. Print. Daske, Holger. â€Å"Economic Benefits Of Adopting IFRS Or US-GAAP – Have The Expected Cost Of Equity Capital Really Decreased?. Journal Of Business Finance & Accounting 33. 3/4 (2006): 329-373. Business Source Premier. Web. 6 Aug. 2012. (65 pages) Daske, H. , Hail, L. , Leuz & Verdi, R. (2008). Mandatory IFRS reporting around the world: Early evidence on the economic consequences. 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Web. 03 Aug. 2012.Hail, Luzi, Christian Leuz, and Peter Wysocki. â€Å"Global Accounting Convergence and the Potential Adoption of IFRS by the United States: An Analysis of Economic and Policy Factors by Luzi Hail, Christian Leuz, Peter Wysocki :: SSRN. † Social Science Research Network (SSRN) Home Page. N. p. , n. d. Web. 4 Sept. 2012. . IASB (2008). Exposure Draft on an improved Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting: The Objective of Financial Reporting and Qualitative Characteristics of Decision- Useful Financial Reporting Information.London ICAEW, 2007, EU Implementation of IFRS and the Fair Value Directive: A Report for the European Commission, The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, London. Juang, Yuan, and Guochang Zhang. â€Å"An Examination of the Incremental Usefulness of Balance-Sheet Information Beyod Earnings in Explaining Stock Returns. † Journal of Auditing & Finance 27. 2 (2012): n. pag. EBSCO. 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Comprehensive Sexual Education Essay - 1154 Words

The birds and the bees is the quintessential â€Å"sex talk† that most parents give to their children when they think the time is right. However, the typical sex talk in schools is quite different than what most parents prefer. Seventy five percent of parents want their children to be taught using the comprehensive sexual education curriculum. Only 15% of parents support abstinence only education (Kelly). Goldman writes in his article, Sex Education, comprehensive education is much more than what many people think. A comprehensive programme of school-based sexuality education addresses biological and reproductive knowledge, rational, moral and ethical values, communicating skills, decision making, negotiating relationship skills,†¦show more content†¦Programs that use the REAL Act to fund their curriculums cannot mention anything regarding religion. The act also promotes lessons on avoiding sexual advances and the effects alcohol and drugs have when making decisi ons (Advocates for Youth). The purpose of a comprehensive curriculum is to provide young people with accurate information about sexuality, to give them an opportunity to develop their values and increase self-esteem, to help them develop interpersonal skills, to help them exercise responsibility in their relationships and to generally promote their health as an adult (Campos 9). This form of education provides information on contraceptives and interpersonal communication skills that are needed to determine individual values and skills that will help young people communicate with future partners. Reaching out to all students is something that all schools should strive to do. Comprehensive sexual education allows schools to reach out to those who are engaging in sexual acts and those who will someday in the future. Sex education should not be a choice. Teenagers need to be taught about sex so that they can protect their health and their partners’ health. When Mary Calderon e said, â€Å"It’s a four letter word ending in K and it means intercourse, and it’s the most important intercourse there is-TALK,† she meant that parents need to help educate their children (Luker 117). Parents are a vital part in any child’s education, especially when it comes toShow MoreRelatedSex Education And Comprehensive Sexual Education1609 Words   |  7 PagesLet s talk about sex. Stances on comprehensive sexual education vary, whether it be from religious beliefs or past experiences, different views are held throughout. It is in the interests of society in general... for every secondary school pupil to be in receipt of sexual education† (Cumper 16). The phrase ‘it’s better to be safe than sorry’ applies heavily on the topic of sex education, the idea of a pregnant and STD ridden 15 year old tends to frighten a million times more than the thought ofRead MoreSexual Education : A Comprehensive Sex Education969 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Understanding the issues that come with sexual education in the classroom is the first step in being a comprehensive sex education advocate. To this day, we see classrooms in middle and high schools preaching about abstinence, shaming children and not being able to give proper, thorough, and informative resources and guidelines on how to approach healthy, body-positive, accessible information about sexual activity. The ideal image abstinence curriculum advocates are hoping for is allRead MoreSex Education : Comprehensive Sexual Education972 Words   |  4 PagesSex Education Comprehensive sexual education has long been a contentious issue within the United States of America. Owing largely to America’s history and culture, sexual education has long been stigmatized as unnecessary involvement in the private life, or even misattributed to rising rates of pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. A U.S. review article, however, poses the opposite argument – â€Å"The overwhelming weight of evidence reveals that sex education which discusses contraceptionRead MoreComprehensive Sexual Education Essay1005 Words   |  5 PagesComprehensive Sexual Education One in four teens are diagnosed with STDs every year in the united states. There are 41,731,233 teens in the united states, so that is roughly 10,432,808.25 kids receiving STDs in the united states every year. With fewer than half of high schools and only a fifth of middle schools teaching all 26 topics recommended by the Centers for Disease Control Team(2015), these numbers shouldn’t be surprising. The majority of teens in the United States are taught that abstinenceRead MoreComprehensive Sexual Abstinence Education : A Comprehensive Sex Education Essay2096 Words   |  9 Pagesbefore marriage. The type of sex education we are proposing is a comprehensive sex education. In this paper we will outline the best way we found to incorporate a comprehensive sexual abstinence education into your school, what is it, and why we think it’s important to have a secure sex education program. Comprehensive sex education is teaching that having sex is natural and healthy. When teaching they focus on the ways to have safe and smart sex. Comprehensive sex education teaches that the only way toRead MoreComprehensive Sexual Education or Bust 1893 Words   |  8 Pagesunited states, there are two schools of thought when it comes to educating students on human sexuality. Sexual education is a broad term that applies to the teaching to information from basic contraceptive use, biological reproduction, the spread of infectious disease, and sexuality. One type of sexual education is referred to as Comprehensive Sexual Education. Comprehensive Sexual Education is curriculum rooted in health and life skills, that strives to teach students medically accurate informationRead MoreComprehensive Sexual Education Of The United States1219 Words   |  5 Pages† Smith refers to the inadequate sexual education of teenagers in the United States. Sexual education is the instruction on issues about bodily development, sex, sexuality, and relationships. Comprehensive sex education teaches about abstinence, condoms, and contraceptives to avoid sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unplanned pregnancies. As well as, the skills needed to help young people explore their own values and options. Comprehensive sexual education should be taught in the United StatesRead MoreComprehensive Sexual Education Should Be Taught1240 Words   |  5 PagesWELL.† SMITH REFERS TO THE INADEQUATE SEXUAL EDUCATION OF TEENAGERS IN AMERICA. Sexual education is the instruction on issues about bodily development, sex, sexuality, and relationships. Comprehensive sex education teaches about abstinence, condoms, and contraceptives to avoid sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unplanned pregnancies. As well as, the skills needed to help young people explore their own values and options. Comprehensive sexual education should be taught in public schools inRead MoreSafe Sex Vs. No Se x1504 Words   |  7 PagesSafe Sex vs. No Sex. What’s Realistic? A Case for Comprehensive Sex Education Teenagers have been having sex since the beginning of time. Instead of telling them â€Å"just don’t† shouldn’t we educate our teens so that they can be safe? The problem with traditional Abstince- Only-Until-Marriage is that instead of educating they use fear tactics to unsuccessfully keep children ignorant. This causes children to turn to other outlets like porn and other children their age, it’s like a bad game of telephoneRead MoreThe Debate For Comprehensive Sex Education1212 Words   |  5 PagesDebate for Comprehensive Sex Education Across the United States of America there is wide spread support for abstinence-only education. A majority of states require that abstinence-only education be the only form of sexual health education provided, or requires that abstinence be stressed above other forms of sexual education. These highly stressed abstinence-only programs are under fire as research comes out against the efficiency of these programs, and as new forms of sexual health education appear

Essay on Music of the Night A Short Story - 1906 Words

Music of the night Pain shot through Ruth’s gnarled knotted hands. Hands twisted by arthritis. Hands that once made audiences weep as they flew over the keyboard of the Steinway. Hands, which the New York Times once called the hands of an angel. Now she was the one weeping. She thought of her wasted life. Her gorgeous silk dresses replaced with rough clothing. Now she wore garments appropriate for cleaning the concert hall where she once performed. Her dreams were gone dashed on the rocks of reality. She took this job to near the stage that had brought her so much joy. Tears misted her eyes obscuring her vision. Never again would she hear the thunderous applause, or experience the standing ovation of thousands. Those days were†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Hay, don’t I know you?† â€Å"No, sir.† Ruth said turning her face away. â€Å"I just started here last week.† â€Å"Well, if you want to keep your job make sure this place is gleaming. The last one didn’t and that why you got her job.† â€Å"Yes sir† Ruth said keeping her head down. For the next hour she worked, polishing the glass until it sparkled. Then on her knees scrubbing the spots from the carpet. Twenty moments after he came Wheeler left without even looking at her. Two years ago he paid her twenty thousand to perform at the holiday gala. Now he paid her menam wage. It was a fantastic concert. She became lost in the music as she always did, her fingers flying over the keyboard. The orchestra performed superbly. As the last note died, the audience set in astonished silence. Then the hall erupted in thunderess applause. They then exited the hall in almost revered silence. Back then she played almost every night. Her tours took her to every large city in America. Each day her agent called with new offers. Booked a year in advance she sometimes felt, as she couldn’t drag herself on stage. Weariness overwhelmed her. Yet it was always the same. As soon as the music began a surge of energy flowed through her. She forgot her problems; she closed her eyes lost to this world. Heaven seemed open to her. At the end of each piece, she reluctantly opened her eyes. It was custom for the performer to receive applause at the end of each piece. In Denver she broke withShow MoreRelatedThe Effect Of Temperature And Music On The Retention Rate914 Words   |  4 PagesThe test scores of the participants in the study did not vary enough to warrant a conclusion of the effects of temperature and music on the retention rates. There was a slight tendency for those in the warmer condition to have a more positive attitude and, possibly because of this slightly improved mood, to score higher on the retention test (Figure 5-2 Figure 6). It is possible that because culturally reading is commonly associated with warmth—cozy blanket, burning fireplace, hot chocolate, etcRead MoreAnalysis Of Bird By Ralph Ellison1307 Words   |  6 Pagesliving†. 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He lives in a small town with his wife, is the head of the music department at the local high school and the director of the band. He is the most important person in the story because he is the only one, not psychiatrists, and foster parents, to make a difference in Jim’s life. Throughout the story, George is determined and hopeful, lonely, and fixated with the beauty of music. GeorgeRead MoreThe Notebook Film Elements1708 Words   |  7 PagesTaibi First Paper Assignment The Notebook The movie The Notebook, directed by Nick Cassavetes and released on June 5th 2004, is a captivating love story, which takes place in the 1940’s. Through filmatic elements such as Cassavetes choices of cinematography, editing, narrative, mise en scene, sound and music, he creates an extremely believable story of two teenagers in the 1940’s who fell in love over the time span of one summer. In order to create a 1940’s vibe, Cassavetes wisely uses a specificRead MoreJames BaldwinS Sonnys Blues713 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿Harrisons Blues There can be little doubt that the characters who are the most similar in James Baldwins short story Sonnys Blues, and in Kurt Vonnegut Jr.s short story Harrison Bergeron, are the title characters of each respective work. They both embody conceptions of youth within each story Sonny as the younger brother of the nameless narrator in Baldwins tale, and Bergeron as the son of the George and Hazel Bergeron. In their own way, each is antisocial and engage in practices thatRead MoreWhere are you Going? Where Have you Been? by Joyce Carol Oates1100 Words   |  5 PagesGoing, Where have you been? is a short story written by Joyce Carol Oates. The 75 year old American author and professor at Princeton University, introduce the story of 15 year old Connie who is rebelling against her mother’s whishes. 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ThereRead MoreSpunk Play Review1400 Words   |  6 Pagesversion of Hurston’s original three tales: â€Å"Sweat,† â€Å"Story in Harlem Slang,† and â€Å"The Gilded Six Bits.† Zora Neale Hurston strived to portray the reality of life as an African American in the early 1900s through native dialect in her s hort stories and novels. Her most notable production, Their Eyes Were Watching God, is a prime example of her effort to illustrate the life of the everyday Negro in search of a better life. Each of the short stories portrays a different, yet comparable view on African